Geography of Asia

Introduction to Geography of Asia

Asia, the largest of the continents; it occupies about 30 per cent of the earth's land area. Asia is also the most populous continent, holding approximately 60 per cent of the world's population. Yet some two-thirds of the continent is either too dry or too cold to support anything but a sparse population. An outstanding feature of this huge continent is diversity—in physical features and in the economic, political, and cultural ways of the people.

Facts in brief about Asia

Most of the early centers of civilization were in Asia, mainly in the Tigris and Euphrates valleys, the valley of the Indus, and northern China. Archeological evidence indicates that cultivation of crops and domestication of animals began in these areas. The continent is also the original home of all the great religions of the modern world.

Asia and Europe are not separated by an ocean or strait but form a single landmass, called Eurasia. The dividing line between the two continents is usually considered to run down the Ural Mountains and Ural River to the Caspian Sea and then across the Caucasus Mountains. At the Isthmus of Suez, Asia connects with Africa. North America lies within 60 miles (97 km) of Asia at the Bering Strait.

Physical Geography

The Asian landmass stretches from the Equator to far above the Arctic Circle. It reaches almost halfway around the globe (about 165 degrees of longitude) from Asia Minor on the Mediterranean Sea to the eastern tip of Siberia on the Bering Strait.

Numerous arms of the Indian, Pacific, and Arctic oceans reach far inland, creating great peninsulas. On the Indian Ocean are the Arabian Peninsula and the Indian subcontinent. Bordering waters include the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the Bay of Bengal. In the southeast, between the Andaman and South China seas, are the Malay and Indochinese peninsulas. Kamchatka and Korea are the principal peninsulas in northeastern Asia; Korea lies between the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan, and the Kamchatka Peninsula between the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea. Other large peninsulas are the Taimyr Peninsula, in the Arctic Ocean, and Asia Minor, between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean.

Great island groups fringe much of the continent, particularly on the south and east. The largest is occupied mainly by Indonesia. Other islands or groups of islands that form countries include the Philippines, Japan, Taiwan, and Sri Lanka.

In the great interior highlands of the Asian landmass, towering mountains enclose large plateaus and basins. The highest range is that of the Himalayas. Here is 29,028-foot (8,848-m) Mount Everest, the world's loftiest peak. The Pamirs, situated where the borders of Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and China meet, form another great highland area. Converging here are such ranges as the Karakoram, which runs along the China-India boundary; the Hindu Kush, principally in Afghanistan; the Kunlun Mountains of western China; and the Tien Shan, shared by China, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan.

Of the interior plateaus enclosed by the ranges, the largest and highest is the Plateau of Tibet, north of the Himalayas. Between the Kunlun Mountains and the Tien Shan lies the vast Tarim Basin, most of which is occupied by the Taklimakan Desert. Here, too, is the Turpan Depression, an area below sea level and flanked by high mountains.

Southwest Asia, sometimes called the Middle East, is largely an arid region of mountains, plateaus, and deserts. The high, dry Plateau of Iran is rimmed on the west by the Zagros Mountains and on the north by the Elburz Mountains. Between the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea rise the ranges of the Caucasus Mountains.

The mountains of the south Asian peninsulas are lower than those of the interior. Along the Indian coasts are the Western and Eastern Ghats; both ranges are edges of the Deccan Plateau. Long, curving mountain ranges extend through Indochina, the Malay Peninsula, and the principal islands of Indonesia.

Much of China is hilly or mountainous and threaded by numerous river valleys. The most extensive flatlands are the Manchurian and North China plains. Toward China's northwest, the land rises to the high Mongolian Plateau, much of which is occupied by the desert wastes of the Gobi.

Asia's largest lowland is that of western Siberia. This vast flatland extends southward through the steppes and deserts of Central Asia, ending in the deserts of Kara Kum and Kyzyl Kum. Plateaus cover most of central Siberia. There are numerous mountain ranges, including the Cherskiy, Sikhote Alin, and Yablonovyy, in eastern Siberia. Among the mountains of the Kamchatka Peninsula are a number of active volcanoes.

In Asia's high interior are the headwaters of some of the world's principal rivers. Flowing north to the Arctic Ocean and draining Siberia are the great systems of the Ob, Yenisey, and Lena rivers. Tributaries include the Irtysh, Angara, Lower Tunguska, and Aldan. The Amur is the largest of the Siberian rivers that flow into the Pacific. Throughout most of Central Asia, there is no drainage to the sea; the streams either dry up or end in salty lakes and marshes.

In China, Indochina, and India flow many of the continent's most used and valuable rivers, notably the Huang He, Yangtze, Mekong, Salween, Irrawaddy, and Ganges-Brahmaputra. Their broad valleys, flood-plains, and deltas have extremely productive soils and are highly cultivated and densely populated. The irrigated parts of the Indus Valley of Pakistan also support a large population.

Dry southwestern Asia has few large rivers. Most important are the Tigris and Euphrates. No river on the Arabian Peninsula flows the year round.

The world's largest lake is the Caspian Sea. Its area is about one and a half times that of all five Great Lakes combined. East of the Caspian are two shallow, salty lakes—Lake Balkhash and the Aral Sea, sixth-largest lake in the world. Lake Baykal, in south-central Siberia, is more than one mile (1,600 m) deep—the world's deepest body of inland water. In this lake are many kinds of plants and animals found nowhere else.

For cross reference lists of specific physical features, see the cross references following the articles on individual Asian countries. See also the subtitle Physical Features or Physical Geography in these articles.

Climate

Asia's interior, far removed from the tempering influence of the oceans, cools rapidly in winter and becomes extremely cold. From this heartland bitterly cold, dry air streams out in all directions. During summer, the situation is reversed. The land heats rapidly, causing the air to rise and be replaced by cooler, moisture-laden air from the oceans. This seasonal reversal of the wind is known as the monsoon. Asia's high mountains are important climatically, for they act as barriers to the passage of air masses. Along some coasts the windward slopes of the mountains are exceptionally rainy; their leeward slopes are dry.

Northern Asia has a severe continental climate. Though often divided into several types—such as polar, sub-polar, middle-latitude steppe, and middle-latitude desert—it is everywhere marked by long, cold winters; warm to hot summers; and little precipitation. The coldest place on earth, excluding Antarctica, is the Verkhoyansk region of northeast Siberia, where January temperatures average -58° F. (-50° C.).

Subtropical and tropical conditions prevail throughout most of India and Indochina. Winters are mild, both because of the southerly latitude and because cold air masses are blocked by mountains, particularly the Himalayas. The summer monsoon is most pronounced in India, where strong southwesterly winds blow inland from the sea, giving abundant rainfall, especially in mountainous areas along the coast.

In extreme southeastern Asia, notably Malaysia and Indonesia, the climate is tropical and rainy. There are no seasons; the weather is always hot and humid. Southern China is subtropical and moist the year long. Prevailing in northern China is a continental kind of climate, with moderately cold winters and hot summers.

Dry climates with extremely hot summers predominate throughout southwest Asia. Baghdad, in Iraq, for example, has a July average temperature of 93° F. (34° C.) and receives only 6 inches (150 mm) of rain annually. Winters vary enormously with latitude and elevation. As in all steppe and desert regions, there are great daily variations in temperature. Along the Mediterranean coast, the climate is tempered by the sea. The narrow coastal belt has moderate amounts of rainfall, all of it falling in winter.

Natural Vegetation

Along the Arctic coast, in the area of permanently frozen subsoil, or permafrost, is the tundra. Here mosses and lichens prevail. South of the tundra, stretching across the continent into Europe, is the vast northern coniferous forest, or taiga. Pines, firs, and spruces are the most common trees; larches are also abundant.

As rainfall decreases toward the heart of the continent, the taiga merges into treeless short-grass plains, or steppes. Farther inland, the steppes merge into deserts, which are virtually devoid of plants except in scattered oases. One of the most desolate areas is the Rub al Khali, or Empty Quarter, of the Arabian Peninsula. Along the Mediterranean coast are cypresses, oaks, and olives.

In the tropical areas of southeastern Asia grow luxuriant rain forests of tall broad-leaved evergreens and dense undergrowth. Similar vegetation is found in the wetter monsoon areas; inland these rain forests give way to deciduous forests and low scrub.

In the densely settled parts of Asia, particularly in India and China, most of the natural covering vanished long ago because of intensive cultivation.

Wild Animals

Asia has a great variety of animals. In tropical south and southeast Asia are many kinds of mammals, reptiles, birds, fish, and insects. Among the large animals of this region are the Indian elephant and the Indian rhinoceros. There are also Bengal tigers, leopards, and—on a small, protected reserve in western India—lions.

Crocodiles infest many of the tropical streams and some coastal waters. Native to a few small Indonesian islands is the dragon of Komodo, largest of all land lizards. Poisonous snakes—adders, cobras, and vipers—are widespread. The python, largest of all snakes, is found in Asia.

Asia's higher mountains and plateaus are the home of the snow leopard and several kinds of goats, antelopes, and sheep. In the cold forests of Siberia and adjacent Manchuria roams the Siberian tiger, largest of the cats. The rare giant panda is found in parts of central China.

The tundra has reindeer, hares, foxes, and wolves. The taiga harbors brown bear, elk, and such fur-bearing animals as sables, ermines, and otters.

Animals of the steppes and deserts are few, principally rodents, lizards, and insects. Along the Mediterranean coast are found deer and gazelles, jackals, and conies.

Some Asian wild animals have been domesticated. The yak is the principal beast of burden in Tibet, the water buffalo in the wet rice lands of Southeast Asia. Indian elephants have long been used to haul logs from tropical forests. In Central Asia, the two-humped Bactrian camel is an important beast of burden; the one-humped dromedary is still used in parts of the Middle East.

Economic Activities

Until the start of the 20th century, subsistence agriculture was the basic economic activity of most of Asia. Commercial agriculture, mining, and manufacturing were found in areas colonized or strongly influenced by Europeans.

Most Asian nations have attempted to industrialize and modernize their societies, particularly since World War II. Several nations, especially Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore, have succeeded in reaching the industrial and technological level of the major Western nations. The other nations of Asia are dealing, with varying degrees of success, with the many difficult problems of modernization. They are trying to change age-old systems of land-holding and farming, educate their people, and raise the capital required to build and maintain industrial enterprises. Widespread poverty and rapid population growth are major hindrances to achieving these aims.

Agriculture is by far the most important economic activity in Asia. Almost 60 per cent of the continent's working population is engaged in farming. Farmers cultivate, either continuously or intermittently, one-sixth of Asia's total land area. The land they use for livestock grazing accounts for an additional one-fifth.

In Communist-ruled Asia—China, Mongolia, North Korea, and Vietnam—most agricultural lands are organized into large, state-controlled and state-owned units such as cooperatives, state farms, and collectives. However, these proved inefficient and unpopular. This system was replaced by a system in which farmers were supposed to produce certain amount of crops for the state and the surplus could be sold in the open market. The Chinese government gradually relaxed its crop requirements, and now many farm families raise and sell crops as they choose. Farmers are usually allowed to use small private plots from these units to grow vegetables and raise livestock.

In non-Communist Asia, subsistence farming on privately owned plots is widespread. Some cash crops are also produced on small, privately owned farms. Commercial farming on large holdings or plantations, which produce mainly export crops such as rubber, is practiced primarily in southern and eastern Asia. Shifting agriculture, mainly of the slash-and-burn type, predominates in some areas. This type of agriculture follows a cyclical pattern, in which land is cleared by cutting and burning, cultivated until it is no longer productive, and then abandoned for new land.

Paddy rice is the chief crop and staple food in much of the continent, particularly in southern and eastern Asia. Wheat is next in importance. The countries of Asia—led by China and India—produce more than 90 percent of the world's supply of rice. The main wheat-growing areas are northeastern China; Central Asia, especially Kazakhstan; Russia and Turkey and the upper Ganges River valley in India and Pakistan.

In addition to rice, other principal food crops in southern and eastern Asia include millet, sorghum, barley, corn, sweet potatoes and yams, cassava, peanuts, soybeans, and a variety of peas and beans. A different array of crops, those suited to relatively dry conditions and oasis agriculture, are produced in western and southwestern Asia. Cereals, lentils, and vegetables are grown mainly for local markets. Export crops include citrus fruit, nuts, dates, figs, and coffee.

The most valuable commercial crops are grown primarily in southern and eastern Asia. Among them are rubber and palm nuts in Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand; tea in Sri Lanka, India, Indonesia and China; cotton in India, Pakistan, China, Turkey, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan; jute in Bangladesh, China and India; and sugarcane in India, Pakistan, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand. Sericulture (the production of silk by raising silkworms) in Japan, China, India, and North and South Korea accounts for most of the world's raw silk. Much of the world's supply of spices, including pepper, ginger, and cinnamon, comes from Asia.

The continent's vast flatlands and plateaus support many types of livestock. In South Asia, farmers who raise livestock use the animals chiefly to help with the work. In the less fertile parts of Central, North, and Southwest Asia, many people raise for their milk, cheese, meat, fur and hides. Manure from livestock is used as fertilizer and sometimes as a cooking fuel.

Meat, which is consumed in relatively small amounts in Asia, is provided by hogs, poultry, sheep, and goats. The great majority of the hogs are raised in China, where they are a chief source of meat. There is little hog raising in predominantly Muslim nations, because their religion forbids Muslims to eat pork. Cattle and water buffalo are raised primarily for milk and for use as draft animals. India has the greatest number of cattle; however, these animals are held sacred by Hindus, so many serve no economic purpose.

Sheep, goats, and horses are raised in short-grass regions. Nomadic herders in the semidesert areas of southwestern and central Asia raise goats, sheep, and camels. Yaks, sheep, and goats are kept on the Tibetan Plateau, and reindeer herds on the Siberian tundras.

Asia is largely a continent of so-called "developing" or "third world" nations, with Japan the most notable exception. Japan is Asia's leading manufacturing nation. It is a world leader in the production of iron and steel, transportation equipment, photographic equipment, and electronic goods. Exports are usually high in value in comparison to their bulk. Examples include automobiles, cameras, and radio and television sets. Japan is the only major Asian nation to have a predominantly urban population employed mainly in manufacturing and commerce.

Industrialization in Russia has occurred primarily in the European part. Development of Asiatic Russia has occurred mainly in cities along the Trans-Siberian Railway. Industrialization has also developed in the former Soviet portion of Central Asia.

Both mainland China and India have attempted large-scale industrialization since roughly the mid-20th century. Both have met with varying degrees of success, though they remain essentially agricultural. Goods are produced in great variety; most are used domestically. Manufacturing is also a significant and growing part of the economies of Indonesia, Iran, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, Turkey, and Vietnam. They produce mostly consumer goods for their large home markets and, increasingly, for export. Large, modern factories in these countries make such products as automobiles, electronic equipment, factory machinery, iron and steel, military weapons, and ships.

A number of small countries—Taiwan, Singapore, South Korea, Israel, and Hong Kong (a special administrative region of China)—have attained considerable success in manufacturing. In Taiwan and South Korea, the major manufacturing industries are geared primarily for export. In Singapore and Hong Kong, export-oriented manufacturing is coupled with shipping, international banking, and other commerce. High-technology products are among the chief manufactured goods of Israel.

In parts of Asia there is little manufacturing except for the processing of a few natural resources, usually for export. Examples are manufacturing of inexpensive jute and cotton textiles in Bangladesh and the refining of petroleum in Kuwait.

The processing of food including industries such as sugar refining and the processing of fish, rice and tobacco is an important industrial activity in some parts of the continent.

Tourism and a related industry, handicrafts, have great economic importance in many parts of Asia, as tourists buy handicrafts made by Asians. The tourist industry is especially active in South, Southeast, and East Asia. A great variety of handicraft items, usually made in small shops for sale in local markets, are produced throughout Asia. Some, including certain textiles, rugs, porcelains, and brassware, are of high quality and find markets throughout the world.

Light industries play an important role in the economies of such countries as Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. Many Southeast Asian countries manufacture textiles, footwear, personal electronic products, and other consumer goods.

Fossil fuels are Asia's most important mineral products. Southwestern Asia, especially the area around the Persian Gulf, produces about one-fourth of the world's yearly output of petroleum, nearly all of it for export. Malaysia and Indonesia are also important exporters of petroleum. In many cases, natural gas is produced along with petroleum. Large amounts of oil and gas also come from fields in Kazakhstan, Siberia, and eastern China.

Asia's major coal fields are in the Kuznetsk Basin, in Russia; the Karaganda, in Kazakhstan; the northeastern part of China; and the northeastern area of India. Iron ore is found in significant quantities in northern Kazakhstan; near the major Chinese and Indian coal-producing areas; and in west-central India. Large reserves of both coal and iron ore in eastern Siberia are increasingly being exploited.

Asia is the primary source of much of the world's tin and graphite. Gold, nickel, and platinum and related metals are found in Siberia and precious gems—rubies and sapphires—in Sri Lanka and Burma. Among the many other minerals produced are tungsten, lead, manganese, copper, and bauxite, as well as phosphates and numerous other nonmetallic minerals.

Asia exports most of its raw mined materials to industrialized nations on other continents. China exports large amounts of antimony and tungsten. Manganese and mica from China and India and chromite mined in Turkey and the Philippines are exported to many parts of the world.

Fishing is an important activity in Asia. Most of the catch is used for human food; relatively little is processed for livestock feed, fertilizer, or industrial use. The people of southern and eastern Asia depend on fish and shellfish for a large part of the protein in their diet. The major fishing nations of Asia include Japan, China, India, Indonesia, Thailand and South Korea. Asiatic Russia's catch is also important.

The richest fisheries in Asian waters are in the western Pacific, especially in northern waters; the eastern Indian Ocean; and the South China Sea. Inland waters are also important.

Siberia's vast forests supply sawtimber, consumed by Russia's enormous lumber industry; pulpwood; and other forest products. Japan's carefully managed timberlands are extremely productive. Tropical Asia produces fine hardwoods and veneer woods. In other parts of Asia, including China and India, wood is used mainly as a fuel.

Railways are the chief means of long-distance transportation throughout much of Asia. The Colonial rulers built a large network of railroads during the late 19th century, when they used trains to carry raw materials from inland areas to coastal cities and ports. The most heavily used systems are in China, India, and Japan. Railways crossing Siberia and Central Asia provide the primary means of overland transportation in these areas.

The colonial rulers also built up Asia's highway system between inland areas and coastal cities. Since the end of colonial rule, an increasing emphasis has been placed on road construction throughout Asia. In general, roads linking large cities and those in and around urban areas form the only extensive networks. Roads have been built into the frontiers of western China, primarily for military purposes. Many kinds of vehicles transport people and goods in Asian cities, such as automobiles, buses, motor scooters, and trucks. Motor vehicles are less common in rural Asia, though buses travel along the rural roads.

Huge areas of Asia are remote from roads and railways. The subarctic and arctic regions can be traveled by river during warmer weather. Cold-weather transportation is limited to dogsleds and special arctic vehicles. Some areas in the tropical forests can be reached only by riverboats or rafts. The great mountain chains are also barriers to travel.

Air travel has opened up many parts of Asia to the movement of people and cargo. Airlines link most large Asian cities with one another and with other parts of the world. Most of Asia's larger cities and important remote localities have airports.

The barriers to land travel and the convenience of water travel contributed to the concentration of population and trade on Asia's southern and eastern seacoasts. There, great cities—Tokyo, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Singapore, Kolkata (Calcutta), and many others—serve as entrance and exit points for much of Asia's goods and travelers. Rivers rank among the chief transportation routes of rural Asia. The people use barges, canoe-like vessels, junks, sampans, and other small boats for travel and to transport goods. Oceangoing vessels carry much cargo to and from Asia's ports. These huge modern ships tower above the small, old-fashioned sampans and other boats that dockworkers use while loading and unloading them.

The goods imported and exported by the nations of Asia (excluding Asian Russia), in terms of value, account for about a third of the world's foreign trade. Japan, Asia's most important trading nation, accounts for about a quarter of the continent's imports and exports, by value.

Most of Asia must import food for its population from North and South America, Australia, and other regions. The largest proportion of Asia's important exports—mineral fuels, rubber, and other raw materials—goes to the United States and western Europe. Asia's major imports—food, machinery, transportation equipment, chemicals, and other manufactured products—come from North America, Australia, and Europe. Japan is the major exception to this pattern; it imports few manufactured goods and is one of the world's leaders in the export of such products.

In some Asian countries, communication is much the same as in Western countries. Many people read newspapers, and radio and television stations broadcast from most cities. Most households have radios, and many own television sets.

In other Asian countries, broadcasts do not reach some rural areas, and only some families own radios, with very few owning television sets. Satellite television receivers and mobile telephones enable some rural communities to stay in touch with the rest of the world, however.

The People

The people of Asia belong to a large variety of ethnic groups. India itself is made up of several hundred groups. India's ethnic composition is so complex that the people generally identify themselves by their religion rather than their ethnic group. A few countries, notably North Korea, South Korea, and Japan, are among the world's most ethnically homogeneous (made up of people belonging to the same ethnic group).

The Chinese are a numerous and important ethnic group in Asia. Outside of China, ethnic Chinese form significant minorities in several Asian countries, including Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Singapore. Some ethnic groups in Asia are in danger of disappearing due to the loss of their homelands to industrialization and urban expansion. Threatened groups include some of the hill tribes of Thailand, Burma, and Laos.

In 1995 Asia had a population of about 3,484,000,000, approximately three-fifths of the world's total population. These millions are distributed unevenly over the surface of the continent, concentrating in two types of areas—the fertile river valleys and coastal lowlands of the eastern and southern regions, and the crowded cities. In river valleys, such as the Yangtze River Delta and Ganges River Delta, farm families live on tiny plots and there are population concentrations of more than 1,000 persons per square mile (386 persons per km2) over large areas.

The many hundreds of languages and dialects spoken in Asia represent six of the world's seven major language families. Spoken in eastern Asia are Sino-Tibetan languages and three major languages that do not belong to any language family—Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese. The people of Manchuria, Mongolia, Turkestan, and Turkey, and those who are indigenous to Asian Russia speak languages of the Altaic branch of the Ural-Altaic family.

Indo-Iranian, a subfamily of the Indo-European family, includes languages of Bangladesh, northern India, Nepal, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Iran. Malayo-Polynesian languages are spoken in the southeast, Dravidian languages in India and parts of Sri Lanka, and Semitic languages, of the Afro-Asiatic family, in the southwest.

All of the great faiths originated in Asia and have adherents in Asian countries. There are also many regional religions and many groups that are animists or engage in nature worship.

Hindus form the largest single religious group, about one-fifth of the total population. They are concentrated in the Indian subcontinent, where their religion originated. Muslims, a vast majority in southwestern and central Asia, and Confucians, centered in China, are the next most numerous. Buddhism, which has largely disappeared from India, where it began, is prevalent in the Far East and southeastern Asia.

The Philippines is a Christian country. Christians form more than half the population of Cyprus and Lebanon and probably almost half that of Asiatic Russia. They are found in smaller numbers in other countries, especially in the Middle East and in former colonial areas. In the early Christian Era the faith spread to the borders of China. In time, however, the Christian Turks and other Central Asian Christians were converted to Islam. Jews, formerly widespread throughout the Middle East, have largely disappeared from Muslim countries since the founding of the state of Israel. There are still some in Asiatic Russia.

Other major Asian religions include Shintoism, in Japan; Taoism, in China; Sikhism, in India and Pakistan; and Zoroastrianism, originally Persian but now represented mainly by the Parsis in India. Manichaeism, also Persian in origin, rivaled Christianity in strength during the early Middle Ages, but eventually died out.

Asia's major contribution to the arts is probably the alphabet, invented by the Semitic peoples of the Middle East. All of the world's great written literature, with the notable exception of Far Eastern works, has been produced in alphabetic writing.

China, India, and Persia were the centers of cultural development in ancient Asia. Each had its own art style. In the fourth century B.C. Persia fell under the influence of Greece, and later under that of Rome. Greek influence prevailed again in the Middle East under the Byzantine Empire. Persia, however, regained its independence and its cultural leadership. Persian art and science were passed on to the Muslim Arab conquerors in the seventh century and became a major influence in Islamic culture.

Meanwhile, Chinese culture was spreading to Japan and southeastern Asia, and Indian art forms were being carried with Buddhism into central Asia and China. Later the Turks and the Mongols, who came from a region adjacent to China, brought elements of Chinese art into the Muslim Empire and into India. As a result of this diffusion, similarities appear frequently in the art of widely separated regions of Asia.

Many useful processes and devices were invented or developed in Asia. The first official coinage—the first monetary system established by a government—was in Lydia, in Asia Minor. Parchment, a writing material, took its name from the city of Pergamum, which had a famous library. Paper, which eventually supplanted parchment, was invented in China, as was the process of printing. The wheelbarrow, crossbow, canal lock-gate, gunpowder, and porcelain also originated in China.

In spite of a tradition of scholarship in some cities and areas of Asia, the continent as a whole has only a scattering of educated people and extremely meager school facilities. In Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan, for example, not more than 30 per cent of the population can read and write. Exceptions to the generally high rate of illiteracy in Asia include Japan, Taiwan, and North Korea, which have very little illiteracy. Adult literacy is a special government goal in India and China.

A great effort is being made in most Asian countries to give children a basic education. According to United Nations estimates, more than 80 per cent of all Asian children of primary-school age are enrolled in school and about 40 per cent of secondary-school-age children are enrolled. Educational progress in Asia is hampered by high dropout rates, because children from impoverished families often must leave school to help with the farmwork or to earn income.

Most of the nations of Asia have universities. Turkey's University of Istanbul dates back to the 15th century. The Philippines' University of Santo Tomás was founded in 1611. Lebanon, India, Pakistan, Japan, and China have universities founded in the 19th century. Most of the other universities in Asia have been established since World War II.

Governments In Asia

Asia has great extremes in forms of government, ranging from the absolute monarchies of the Arabian Peninsula, still feudal in character, to the Marxist regimes of China and various other countries. Some Asian countries have democratic governments, either in the form of constitutional monarchies or republics, but many of the countries are dictatorships.