Geography of Europe

Introduction to Geography of Europe

Europe, the smallest of the seven continents except Australia. Despite its small size—the entire continent is only 10 per cent larger than the United States—Europe has played a dominant role in world affairs for more than 2,000 years. Ancient Greece and Rome contributed much to civilization. Great Britain, France, Spain, and other European countries have spread their cultures to many distant lands through exploration and colonization. Europe is a centuries-old center of education and culture, and has made many important contributions to the arts and sciences.

Europe is a great peninsula running west from Asia. Europe, in turn, has a number of large peninsulas of its own, including the Iberian, Balkan, Italian, and Scandinavian. Europe and Asia are often referred to as a single continent, called Eurasia, because there is no clear-cut dividing line between them.

Europe is bounded on the north by the Greenland, Norwegian, and Barents seas. The eastern boundary is usually placed at the Ural Mountains and the western shore of the Caspian Sea. On the south the continent is bounded by the Caucasus region and the Black Sea, Sea of Marmara, and Mediterranean Sea. On the west are the Atlantic Ocean and its various bays and seas.

Northern Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia lie within the Arctic Circle. The prime meridian (0º longitude) runs through Great Britain, France, and Spain.

The coast, about 25,000 miles (40,000 km) long, is extremely irregular and dotted with many islands. Major islands include:

In Arctic Waters

—Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, and Svalbard.

In the Baltic Sea

—Zealand, Fyn, and Gotland.

In the Atlantic Ocean

—Iceland and the British Isles.

In the Mediterranean Sea

—the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, and Crete.

Physical Features

Europe can be divided into four main regions. They are, from north to south, the Northern Highlands, the Great European Plain, the Central Highlands, and the Alpine Mountains.

The Northern Highlands, which include the mountains of Scandinavia and of the northern British Isles, were once overrun by huge glaciers. The glaciers left many lakes, rounded mountains, and U-shaped valleys. The highest point, Galdhöpiggen, in Norway, is more than 8,000 feet (2,400 m) above sea level.

The Great European Plain extends from southwestern France to the Ural Mountains in Russia. It includes northern France, southeastern Great Britain, most of Belgium and the Netherlands, Denmark, northern Germany, and southern Sweden. Much of Europe's population and industry, and many of the continent's major cities, are located on this plain.

The Central Highlands, extending east-west across central Europe, are moderately high and heavily wooded. Examples of these highlands are the Massif Central and the Vosges of France, the Ardennes of Belgium, the Black Forest and Taunus mountains of Germany, and the Ore and Sudeten mountains on the Czech Republic's northern border. Except in such large river valleys as those of the Rhine, Rhône, Elbe, and Danube, the Central Highlands are sparsely settled.

The Alpine Mountains extend across southern Europe from Spain to southern Russia. Among these mountains are the Sierra Nevada, Pyrenees, Alps, Pindus, Balkan, and Caucasus mountains. These are high, rugged ranges with steep slopes.

Rivers are of great economic importance in Europe because many of them provide navigation and large amounts of water power. Most European rivers are quite short. The Volga River, the continent's longest river, is 2,290 miles (3,685 km) in length, about the same length as the Mississippi River. Other large southward-flowing rivers include the Dnieper, Danube, Don, Po, Rhône, and Ebro. Among the northward-flowing rivers are the Loire, Seine, Rhine, Elbe, Oder, Vistula, Western Dvina, Northern Dvina, and Pechora.

Most of Europe's many lakes are in the north. Finland is the chief lake country—about 9 per cent of its area is water. Lakes Ladoga and Onega, in Russia, are Europe's largest lakes. Other large lakes include Lakes Vänern and Vättern, in Sweden; and Lake Balaton, in Hungary. Many of the Alpine lakes of central Europe are popular tourist attractions. Among the largest of these are Lakes Geneva and Constance, both on the Swiss border.

Climate

Despite Europe's northerly location, much of the continent has an agreeable climate. This is due largely to the temperate influence of the ocean and seas.

A marine climate blankets western Europe from northern Spain to central Norway. Here, the warmth of the North Atlantic Current is carried far inland by westerly winds. All months have average temperatures above freezing. Summers are cool and winters are mild. Rain falls during all months, but snow is uncommon. Humidity is high; there are many foggy days; and the sky is often cloudy. A similar climate occurs along the Pacific coast of the United States from northern California to the Canadian border.

Facts About Europe

—Including the continent and nearby islands, about 3,820,000 square miles (9,894,000 km 2 ). It is the second smallest continent and forms 1/14 of the world's land surface.

—About 3,300 miles (5,300 km).

—About 2,400 miles (3,900 km).

—704,000,000 (1990 estimate).

—Caucasus Mountains (Elbrus, in Russia, 18,510 feet [5,642 m]); Alps (Mont Blanc, in France, 15,771 feet [4,807 m]).

—The surface of the Caspian Sea, 92 feet (28 m) below sea level.

—Volga, in Russia, 2,290 miles (3,685 km); Danube, in central and south-eastern Europe, 1,750 miles (2,816 km); Dnieper, in Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine, 1,420 miles (2,285 km).

—Ladoga, 7,000 square miles (18,000 km 2 ); Onega, 3,800 square miles (9,800 km 2 ). Both are in Russia.

In central and eastern Europe, where the ocean's influence is less, the climate is largely continental. The region heats quickly in summer and cools quickly in winter. Summers vary from warm to hot. Winters are cold. Compared with the marine climate, the continental has less rainfall (coming largely in summer), more snow, and fewer cloudy days. A similar climate is found in the American Middle West.

Southern Europe has a mediterranean climate. Summers are hot and dry. Winters are rainy and mild even though light snows and freezing temperatures may occur. Southern California has a similar climate.

Subpolar and tundra climates, with extremely long, cold winters, are found in the far north. The climate of northern Alaska is similar. A semiarid climate is found in small regions of central Spain and near the Caspian Sea. These dry regions receive only enough rain to grow small plants. There are no true deserts in Europe.

Plants and Animals

The tundra, in the far north, is a treeless region where only small mosses, lichens, and ferns can withstand the cold winters. South of the tundra is the taiga, a coniferous forest of pine, spruce, fir, and larch that stretches across northern Europe. Below the taiga is a mixture of coniferous and broadleaf (deciduous) forests, which include beech, ash, oak, hazel, poplar, and willow trees. Broadleaf forests occur mainly in a belt stretching northeastward from Portugal to Denmark.

The plants that border the Mediterranean Sea are mainly small, drought-resistant southern evergreens. The chief trees include Aleppo pine and cypress, cork oak, and Spanish chestnut. On the dry steppes of Spain and southeastern Europe, grasses make up most of the natural vegetation.

Because the land has been densely settled for centuries, wildlife has been greatly reduced. The European bison, for example, is almost extinct. Among the remaining larger wild animals are the brown bear, deer, and elk. Smaller animals include the badger, beaver, chamois, chipmunk, fox, genet, hedgehog, lynx, marmot, marten, mole, otter, polecat, porcupine, rabbit, squirrel, weasel, wildcat, wild pig, wolf, and wolverine. Europe has few snakes.

Thrushes, finches, warblers, and buntings are probably the most numerous birds. Others include the raven, rook, jackdaw, magpie, nutcracker, woodpecker, cuckoo, kingfisher, swift, falcon, hawk, and eagle.

Economic Activities

For many years two general economic systems prevailed in Europe—centrally planned economies in eastern Europe and market-based economies, with varying degrees of governmental participation and control, in western Europe. Since the collapse of Communist regimes throughout most of eastern Europe during 1989–90, many of the nations of eastern Europe have begun to establish market-based economic systems. Transportation and communications services throughout Europe are generally government owned; in some nations banks and numerous manufacturing enterprises are also nationalized. As a whole, western Europe is industrially and technologically more advanced than eastern Europe.

Europe consumes about a third of the world's annual fuel output and produces a major share of its manufactured goods. European products account for more than 45 per cent of the world's exports. Tourism, particularly in western Europe, plays an important role in the economy, by creating jobs and bringing in foreign currency to offset spending on imports. A number of countries, especially Italy and Spain, rely heavily on income from tourism.

International trade is a mainstay of many European countries. Organizations such as the European Union (EU) and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) help to maintain trade within Europe and with nations abroad.. EU member countries trade among themselves sans barriers such as tariffs, import quotas, and other regulations or restrictions, and also invest freely in one another’s economies. The EU also regulates its members’ industrial policy, transportation policy, and agricultural policy. In addition, the EU promotes a common trade policy with countries outside Europe.

Leading industrial areas of Europe have traditionally included parts of France, Germany, northern Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Since the late 20th century, however, major industrial areas have developed in Ireland and in central and eastern European countries such as the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Russia, and Ukraine.

By employment, manufacturing is the chief economic activity in most of Europe. Except in parts of eastern Europe, 25 per cent or more of the labor force is employed in manufacturing. In some Western European nations, however, employment in the service industries, such as banking, insurance, and tourism, surpasses that in manufacturing. New industries utilizing Europe’s highly skilled labor force and highly developed research and development programs have spread from western Europe to many countries in Eastern Europe.

Industrial production is extremely diverse. Germany, France, the United Kingdom, the Benelux countries, Poland, the Czech Republic, Ukraine, and the European part of Russia are among the world's leading producers of such products as iron and steel, machinery, transportation equipment, and chemicals. Industrial development in parts of northwestern Europe, such as the Ruhr region of Germany and other areas along the lower Rhine River, is among the most concentrated in the world. Heavy industry grew primarily in areas with abundant coal for fuel and accessible water transportation. However, increased international competition, especially from countries in North America and Asia, has provided great challenges for Europe’s traditional industrial centers.

Shipbuilding centers largely in the Scandinavian countries, Germany, Poland, Spain, Russia, Ukraine, and the Baltic states. Paper and other wood products are manufactured mainly in Scandinavia, Germany, and Russia.

Industrial development in parts of northwestern Europe, such as the Ruhr region of Germany and other areas along the lower Rhine River, is among the most concentrated in the world. Heavy industry grew primarily in areas with abundant coal for fuel and accessible water transportation. However, increased international competition, especially from countries in North America and Asia, has provided great challenges for Europe’s traditional industrial centers.

Europe has some of the world’s richest farmland. Farming, except in parts of eastern and southern Europe, is highly mechanized and efficient. European farmers produce most of the food consumed on the continent. However, all nations must import a sizable portion of their food supply. Much of the food imported comes from tropical countries, including such goods as cocoa, coffee, and tropical fruits. There are great variations among European nations in the percentage of workers employed in agriculture. Serbia and Montenegro, Albania, and Moldova have the highest percentage of agricultural workers in the labor force—30 per cent or greater. Nations with the lowest percentage of agricultural workers include Great Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Sweden, and Switzerland, each with less than 4 per cent.

Farms in Europe produce primarily livestock and cereals, including wheat, barley, oats, rye, and corn, as well as corn, flax, potatoes, sugar beets, and tobacco. France, Germany, Poland, Russia, and Ukraine are Europe's greatest producers of cereals, dairy products, and pork. Fruits and vegetables come primarily from France, Italy, Russia, Spain, and Ukraine. Most of the world’s olives come from farms in the Mediterranean areas of Europe. These farms also produce citrus fruits, dates, figs, and grapes. Leaders in the production of beef and veal include France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and Ukraine. Though not the leader in quantity, the Netherlands has the largest yield per acre of cereals.

Farmers in most of Europe raise cattle, hogs, sheep, and poultry for meat. Some of the world’s best breeds of cattle and sheep originated in Europe. Germany, Denmark, Ireland, the Netherlands, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the Scandinavian countries have the most productive dairy farms. The United Kingdom has produced many of these breeds, including Hereford and Jersey cattle and Hampshire, Shropshire, and Suffolk sheep.

Mining employs only a small portion of the work force. It supplies an important share of essential raw materials and fuels; however, the larger share must be imported. Coal, found in a belt from Great Britain across northern Europe into Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, Germany, and Russia, is one of the most abundant minerals and has long been mined. Also fairly plentiful is iron ore, coming mainly from the Krivoy Rog fields of Ukraine and from Sweden and the Lorraine area of France. Natural gas is found in great quantities in the Groningen fields of the Netherlands, Russia and the United Kingdom, and in offshore North Sea sites. In addition to natural gas, vast quantities of oil lie beneath the North Sea. North Sea oil and natural gas are extracted primarily by Great Britain and Norway. The chief petroleum producers are Norway, Russia, and the United Kingdom.

Metals are mined in virtually all parts of the continent; quantities vary greatly from country to country. The Ural Mountains of Russia have rich deposits of numerous metallic minerals. Western Europe produces moderate amounts of zinc, lead, copper, and bauxite. Many of the other mined products of Europe, including diamonds, nickel, platinum, potash, silver, and zinc, exist primarily in Russia.

Europe’s energy comes from coal-burning power plants, hydropower (water power) facilities, and nuclear power, apart from natural gas, oil and renewable energy resources. Beginning in the late 20th century, Europe invested in methods of generating energy from renewable sources, such as the power of ocean tides, rivers, sunlight, and wind.

Fishing is an important activity, especially in northern Europe. The most important fisheries lie in the North Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean, and the greatest quantities of fish are usually caught by Russia, Norway, and Denmark. Iceland, Spain, Great Britain, and France also have large fishing industries. The largest part of the catch comes from northeastern Atlantic waters, but European fleets fish throughout much of the world.

The European Union created its Common Fisheries Policy to coordinate fishing efforts and attempt to manage overfishing, which has threatened the survival of many fish species. Such fish as hake and cod, once abundant in northern waters, have become severely threatened in those areas.

Forestry centers largely in northern Europe, particularly in Russia, Finland, Austria, Germany, Norway, and Sweden. Parts of France, Romania, and Poland also produce timber. Forest resources in much of the rest of Europe are depleted or of poor quality, and the needs of most nations must be met by imports. Pine and other softwoods account for most of the lumber consumed in Europe.

The countries of Europe usually account for about half of the world's imports and exports by value. The European Union accounts for more than three-fourths of this trade. The United States, China and Japan are the largest single trading partners outside of the continent.

The development of the European Union has stimulated trade in Europe, to make more goods and services available to European consumers. EU members also trade with many non-European countries. The EU has a number of regional trade agreements with Latin America, with the non-EU countries of the Mediterranean, and with developing countries in a group called the African, Pacific, and Caribbean (APC) states.

Some countries that belong to other trade groups, such as the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) have also agreed to eliminate trade barriers on certain products and allow for differences in how they conduct trade with nonmember countries. Three EFTA members—Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway—have entered into an agreement with the EU called the European Economic Area (EEA), to remove most trade barriers between these three countries and the European Union.

Service industries produce services rather than goods, and include health care, finance, and government. Collectively, these industries employ more European workers than any other economic sector.

In some European countries, including the United Kingdom, the government pays the health care expenses of almost all of the country's people. Under this system, all medical facilities are publicly owned and all medical personnel are paid from public funds. These countries provide health insurance, which ensures free medical care for those unable to pay and refunds most of the payments made by patients who do pay. These plans are financed by the European countries through high tax rates.

Many European countries are world leaders in medical research. The Pasteur Institute in Paris is a world center for the study, prevention, and treatment of disease. The United Kingdom’s Medical Research Council, a government agency, supports biomedical research.

Since the late 20th century, Europe’s pharmaceutical industry has grown rapidly. European drug companies are developing new medications to treat or prevent a variety of diseases.

Europe has a leading role in international finance, with the EU ranking as the top investor in such countries as India and China.Major stock exchanges of Europe include those in Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Frankfurt, Germany; London; Paris; and Zurich, Switzerland. The London Bullion Market Association is the center of the world’s gold market, and Amsterdam is the center of the world’s diamond market. Frankfurt, the site of the European Central Bank, has become a major center for the European bond market.

Some of the world’s largest banks, which receive much foreign investment because they offer security and high rates of return, have their headquarters in France, Germany, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. The spread of the euro has made such large banks even more important, as more and more international investors have acquired funds in euros.

Government plays a vital role in the economies of European countries, as it provides such public services as education, highway systems, and military protection. European central governments hence employ large numbers of people, and thereby regulate much of their countries’ economies.

Europe has highly developed transportation networks, especially Western Europe, which has excellent rail, highway, air, and water transportation systems. Airlines, highways, railways, and waterways provide efficient systems for the movement of people and goods.

Railways provide the chief passenger and freight service throughout much of the continent. Continental Europe is linked to Great Britain by rail through the Channel Tunnel. Europe has some of the world's longest railway tunnels. The Channel Tunnel, or Chunnel, which is 31.1 miles (50 kilometers) long, runs under the English Channel and connects the United Kingdom and France. The 21.5-mile (34.6-kilometer) Lötschberg Base Tunnel carries rail traffic through the Alps in Switzerland. European express trains, including fast passenger trains called InterCity trains, rank among the most efficient in the world. They can travel 150 miles (240 kilometers) per hour. European governments typically operate such train systems.

A well-developed network of highways and roads serves most of Europe. Major roads are paved, but dirt roads are also common, particularly in the south and east. A number of countries have systems of high-speed highways, such as the Autobahns in Germany and the Autostradas in Italy. Among the best-known European highways are the German four-lane superhighways known as autobahns. Ownership of automobiles is widespread. Trucks carry goods throughout the continent.

Many long road tunnels enable traffic to flow easily through Europe’s mountains. The world’s longest tunnel, the Laerdal Tunnel, connecting Oslo to Bergen in Norway, is 15.2 miles (24.5 kilometers) long. The St. Gotthard Road Tunnel, which cuts through the Alps in central Switzerland, is 10.5 miles (16.9 kilometers) long.

Europe makes great use of rivers and canals, which provide a network for sending goods on barges and other ships. Those in the northwest and in Russia and Ukraine carry the greatest traffic. Among the principal navigable waterways are the Danube, Elbe, Rhine, Seine, Thames, Moselle, and Volga. Europe handles more than half the world's international shipping. Some of the world's largest merchant fleets belong to European nations, with countries as Greece, Norway, and the United Kingdom having huge fleets. Rotterdam ranks as Europe’s major port, taking in much of the goods from non-European countries. Other European ports include those in Barcelona, Spain; Copenhagen, Denmark; Gdansk, Poland; Hamburg, Germany; Helsinki, Finland; Le Havre, and Marseille, France; Lisbon, Portugal; London; Naples, Italy; Piraeus, Greece; Riga, Latvia; and Stockholm, Sweden. Pipelines are vital for transporting oil and natural gas.

Most Europeans own televisions that broadcast channels run by governments and private companies. Large international TV networks link European countries to one another and to the rest of the world. The European Broadcasting Union operates Eurovision, the world’s largest provider of international sports and news broadcasts.

Mail, telephone, and telegraph services are mainly run by European governments. Newspapers are published throughout Europe, with both national and local papers available in most European cities. Some of the national papers, such as The Times and the Financial Times of the United Kingdom and Le Monde of France, also appear throughout the world.

Europe plays a leading role in the international telecommunications industry. Cellular telephone services, such as Nokia, headquartered in Finland, rank as the world’s top provider of cell phones. The Internet also plays an increasingly important role in the European communication industry, as Europeans are increasingly having access to computers, thus making the use of e-mail and other electronic communication techniques more widespread.

The People

Although Europe has only about 7 per cent of the world's land area, its 704,000,000 inhabitants account for about 15 per cent of the world's population. Countries with the largest populations are Russia (European part), Germany, Italy, Great Britain, France, Ukraine, Spain, and Poland. No other continent is so densely settled. There are 173 persons to the square mile (67 per km 2), nearly 2 1/2 times as many as in the United States.

Virtually all the people are of Caucasoid (white) ancestry, but their physical traits vary. As a general rule, but one with many exceptions, the people in the north have a heavier build than those in the south. The northerners' hair and skin tend to be lighter colored, and their heads are generally narrower and longer.

In Europe there are about 40 different nationalities, or groups of people with a common language, history, and culture. Some nationalities are scattered throughout several countries. Others share a single country with one or more other groups. Conflicting nationalities within a country have long been the source of much political unrest, particularly in the countries of eastern Europe.

Almost all of the languages spoken in Europe are part of the Indo-European language family. Each has a large written literature. The most widely used languages are Great Russian, German, English, French, and Italian.

Many Europeans speak more than one language. Some countries have more than one official language. Switzerland, for example, has four—German, French, Italian, and Romansh.

Christianity is the predominant religion, and the Roman Catholic Church has by far the largest membership. It is the dominant church in Ireland, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Lithuania, and Poland. Northern Europe is largely Protestant. Leading Protestant groups include Anglicans in England; Lutherans in northern Germany, Scandinavia, Finland, Latvia, and Estonia; and Calvinists in Switzerland, the Netherlands, and Scotland. The Eastern Orthodox Church is the leading church in eastern and southeastern Europe, including Russia.

Judaism is the largest non-Christian religion. Jews live mainly in the large cities. Muslims are concentrated in parts of the southeast, particularly in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, Turkey, and Azerbaijan.

Europe has a rich cultural heritage dating from the Greek and Roman civilizations. Many of Europe's schools and universities attract students from all parts of the world. In most European countries, however, higher education is not readily available to the mass of the people. Frequently, only the brighter children and children from wealthy families are given the opportunity of advanced education.

Quality of education varies greatly throughout the continent. In the west, from France to Scandinavia, the people are well educated in public, private, and church schools. Because of compulsory education, almost all the people are literate. In the south and east, education is less advanced. There are fewer schools and universities, and illiteracy is still a problem. In Albania, for example, about 25 per cent of the people over 10 years of age are illiterate; in Portugal, about 11 per cent.

For further information, see subtitle People in articles about individual countries.

The government in Western European countries is democratic. Some of these countries, such as Great Britain, Belgium, Norway, and the Netherlands, are constitutional monarchies. Most of the others are republics or federal republics. Most Western European countries use the British cabinet system. The chief of state—either a president or a monarch—has mainly ceremonial duties and a prime minister, or premier, heads the government.

For many years most of the countries of Eastern Europe had totalitarian regimes dominated by the Communist party. That began to change in the late 20th century, especially in 1989, and various democratic reforms have been introduced in many of these countries. The Soviet Union and its Communist system collapsed in 1991. Many of the new countries formed out of the Soviet Union began to establish democratic governments.

In almost all western European countries, the government is a part or sole owner of public service businesses such as airlines, electric companies, railways, and telephone companies. The government also attempts to provide many types of social welfare programs. For instance, the Swedish government gives every family an allowance for each child under 16 years of age.

Council of Europe, which was formed in 1949 chiefly, seeks to promote unity among the European nations. The council comprises of a joint committee, a secretariat-general, a committee of ministers with one representative from each member nation, and a parliamentary assembly with several members from each nation. The founding countries of the Council were Belgium, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. The council's main areas of activity include such areas as culture and sport, education, human rights, and public health.

For further information, see subtitle Government in articles about individual European countries.