Arctic Lands

Most Arctic lands are low and flat and were heavily glaciated during the last Ice Age. At that time, glaciers scraped away most of the loose surface material, leaving large areas of hard, bare rock. In other areas there are extensive deposits of glacial debris. Both kinds of terrain, which are treeless and are called tundra, are found over wide areas of northern Russia and of northern Canada.

Mountains dominate some Arctic lands. Baffin and Ellesmere islands in the Arctic archipelago of Canada have glacier-capped peaks that are from 6,000 to 8,000 feet (1,800 to 2,400 m) above sea level. Even higher are the mountains, largely covered by ice, on the east and west coasts of Greenland. Parts of Svalbard and Novaya Zemlya are also mountainous.

Much of the Arctic has very poor drainage. During the brief summer thaw, there are vast areas occupied by marshes and bogs. Nearly everywhere a permanently frozen layer, called permafrost, underlies the ground. This layer varies in thickness from 5 feet (1.5 m) or less to about 5,000 feet (1,500 m).

About 85 per cent of Greenland, the world's largest island, is covered by a permanent ice cap. The only ice-free areas are along the rugged, fjorded coasts. Far northern Scandinavia, also part of the Arctic, has a similar coast.