Geography of South America

Introduction to Geography of South America

South America is the southern and smaller of the two continents of the Western Hemisphere. It is a great triangular landmass, linked to North America by the narrow Isthmus of Panama and lying largely east of the longitude of Florida.

No single characteristic can possibly typify South America. It has tremendous diversity, not only in its landscapes and climates, but also in its villages, cities, and people. There are, however, certain characteristics common almost everywhere. Most prevalent is the economic weakness that afflicts almost every country of the continent. Culturally, the languages, customs, and traditions introduced centuries ago by Spanish and Portuguese colonists are still in wide use throughout South America. And the great majority of the people adhere to one religion—Roman Catholicism.

Extremes of wealth and poverty have long existed in South America, with most of the population being either very rich or very poor. The rich group, a small minority, consists largely of property owners. The poor are landless, usually illiterate workers and peasant farmers who have little political influence. This pattern is gradually giving way as an entirely new class emerges—a middle class of literate workers with the purchasing power to buy more than just the bare necessities. This new middle class is creating a large demand for consumer goods, many of which are being produced on the continent for the first time.

While such social and economic changes are occurring rapidly in some areas, in others they have scarcely begun. Political instability, a chronic lack of investment money, and enormous foreign debt continue to be serious problems. Perhaps even more serious is the rapidly expanding population in much of the continent; it threatens to outrun food production and is jamming already overcrowded cities. Finding solutions to such problems is the challenge facing every country of this continent.

Physical Geography

In a general sense, South America bears some similarity to North America. High rugged mountains are in the west, lower and more rounded mountains lie to the east, and between them are lowlands and plains. However, the western mountains—the Andes—are much higher than those of North America; South America's plains are less extensive, and its eastern highlands more widespread. Moreover, the pattern of climates is quite different from that of North America because most of South America lies in the tropics.

South America's long coastline has relatively few prominent peninsulas or indentations. The Pacific coast in particular has very few natural harbors, except in the extreme south. On the Atlantic coast there are more bays and inlets, but these are often far from large cities, or are isolated from the interior by coastal mountains. Islands lie primarily near the extreme northern and southern ends of the continent; notable are Trinidad, the Falkland and Galápagos groups, and the many islands of the southern Chile-Tierra del Fuego region.

The Andes, a snowcapped range of mountains more than 4,000 miles (6,400 km) in length, constitute South America's most prominent physical feature. Stretching along or near the west coast from the Caribbean Sea to Tierra del Fuego, the Andes form one of the world's longest continuous mountain barriers. The Andes are geologically young, with jagged peaks and steep, rocky slopes. There are many volcanoes, both active and dormant, and the entire region is an active earthquake zone. More than 20 peaks exceed 20,000 feet (6,100 m) above sea level; Argentina's Aconcagua, which reaches 22,834 feet (6,960 m), is the world's highest peak outside Asia.

For most of their length, the Andes consist of two and sometimes three cordilleras, or chains; between them are deep valleys and high intermontane basins and plateaus. In these lofty mountain-rimmed areas, where the altitude brings relief from the equatorial climate of the lowlands, live most of the people of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. The ruggedness of the terrain and the lack of easy passes through the Andes have long isolated various parts of each country and prevented the building of adequate transportation systems.

Occupying a large part of eastern South America is the Brazilian Highlands, a rolling, hilly plateau lying generally 1,000 to 3,000 feet (300 to 900 m) above sea level. Elevations are somewhat higher near the Atlantic coast and in the several ranges of rounded mountains that cross the plateau. Few peaks exceed 9,000 feet (2,740 m) in elevation. Scattered across the Brazilian Highlands are tablelands of lava and other hard, erosion-resistant rock, which often end abruptly at high, steep escarpments, or cliffs. One such escarpment, the Serra do Mar, parallels portions of Brazil's coast, making transportation to the interior difficult. Many rivers draining the highlands drop over escarpments in rapids or waterfalls.

Another elevated region, the Guiana Highlands, lies in north-central South America. Resembling the Brazilian Highlands, it is a rolling plateau crossed by low mountain ranges. A few peaks in the west reach 8,000 or 9,000 feet (2,440 or 2,740 m); those in the east barely exceed 4,000 feet (1,220 m).

The lowlands and plains of South America occupy several broad regions and numerous smaller areas. Most extensive is the vast, nearly flat Amazon Basin. Its densely forested, river-laced expanse reaches 2,000 miles (3,200 km) eastward from the base of the Andes to the mouth of the Amazon River. The basin is widest in the west and narrows considerably in the east, where it is wedged between the Guiana and Brazilian highlands.

Other large lowland and plains regions adjoin the Amazon Basin. In the northwest are the Llanos, or grassy plains, of the Orinoco River basin; they extend to the shores of the Caribbean Sea. South of the Amazon Basin, across a low plateau, begins the grass- and tree-covered Gran Chaco. This sparsely populated and often desolate region merges southward with the Argentine Pampas, a flat and highly fertile plains region. The narrow southern end of the continent, east of the Andes, is called Patagonia. It is an arid and wind-swept plateau crossed by deep valleys.

All the major rivers of South America flow to the Atlantic Ocean or the Caribbean Sea. On the western slopes of the Andes, the streams flowing to the Pacific are short and carry little water. Nearly one-third of the continent is drained by the huge Amazon River system. From headwaters high in the Andes, the Amazon flows across forest-covered lowlands to its mouth at the Equator. Adding to its huge flow, the largest in the world, are hundreds of tributaries, some of which—such as the Madeira and Tapajós—are themselves major rivers.

The Orinoco River and its tributaries drain the land between the Andes and the Guiana Highlands. Far to the south are the Paraná, Paraguay, and Uruguay rivers, whose combined waters flow into the great estuary known as the Río de la Plata.

Rapids and waterfalls are common on South American rivers; they often prevent navigation. In the highlands of Venezuela is Angel Falls, the world's highest waterfall, formed where a river drops more than 3,000 feet (900 m) from an escarpment. Impressive Iguassu Falls, on the Brazil-Argentina border, is higher and much wider than Niagara Falls.

South America is almost as poor in lakes as it is rich in rivers. Aside from reservoirs, nearly all the lakes are in or near the Andes. Lake Titicaca, in an Andean basin 12,500 feet (3,810 m) above sea level, is the largest freshwater lake. Venezuela's Lake Maracaibo has a larger surface area, but its northern half is brackish. Glacial lakes dot the southern Chile-Argentina border area.

About two-thirds of South America lies in the tropics and, except for the Andes and higher parts of the Brazilian Highlands, has warm to hot weather all year. The narrow, tapering southern part of the continent extends into the middle latitudes and has subtropical and temperate conditions. Here, definite warm and cool seasons create climatic variety lacking in the tropics. Nowhere in South America is the range of temperatures as great as that of North America. Highs of more than 100° F. (38° C.) are relatively rare, as are lows approaching 0° F. (–18° C.).

Tropical South America has an almost unvarying daily temperature range between about 72° and 90° F. (22° and 32° C.). The lowlands of the north—including the Amazon Basin; the coasts of Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana; and western Colombia—have a tropical rainy climate. Extreme humidity, constant heat, and almost daily rainfall are typical.

A tropical wet-and-dry climate prevails on both sides of the Amazon Basin, in the Orinoco lowlands and the Brazilian Highlands, and south into the Gran Chaco. A pronounced dry spell, becoming longer as distance from the Equator increases, occurs when the sun is on the opposite side of the Equator. Temperatures are warm to hot virtually the whole year, except for occasional cool periods in areas well away from the Equator. Northeastern Brazil suffers from very irregular rains and has frequent serious droughts. When rains do arrive, disastrous flooding often results.

Subtropical and temperate climates reach from southern Brazil into Uruguay and over most of Argentina. Average summer temperatures in these areas vary from roughly 70° to 80° F. (21° to 27° C.) except in southern Argentina (Patagonia), which is substantially cooler. Temperatures in winter average about 20 to 30 Fahrenheit degrees (11 to 17 Celsius degrees) cooler. Precipitation is generally 20 to 50 inches (510 to 1,270 mm) yearly. Desertlike conditions occur from western Argentina southeastward over Patagonia to the Atlantic coast. Rainfall varies from scarcely 5 inches (130 mm) near the Andes to about 20 inches (510 mm) in southern Patagonia. Tierra del Fuego's remote islands are cool, rainy, and windy.

The Andes exert a profound influence on both temperature and rainfall. As elevation increases in the mountains, temperatures become progressively lower. At high elevations, constant cold prevails, with snowfields and glaciers on some peaks. The mountains are also a barrier to moist winds, causing windward slopes to be quite rainy, while the leeward sides may be dry.

The Pacific coast from central Peru through northern Chile is one of the driest regions on earth. A cold current offshore and the barrier effect of the Andes combine to prevent rain. Not even the slightest rainfall has ever been recorded in some parts of the Atacama Desert in northern Chile. Southward along the Pacific coast, the climate gradually becomes more humid. Central Chile has a climate similar to that of southern California. Southernmost Chile resembles North America's Pacific Northwest and the southeast Alaskan coast. Here, the weather is continually cool, windy, and rainy, with many areas receiving 100 inches (2,540 mm) or more yearly.

Vegetation and Wild Animals

South America's natural vegetation follows closely the continent's climatic zones. In the Amazon Basin and other tropical-rainy regions are vast rain forests. Here, dense stands of tall hardwood and softwood trees cover vast areas. In the Amazon Basin much of the forest is being cleared and burned to provide land for settlement and farming. Farther from the Equator, as rainfall decreases and a dry season begins, the rain forest gradually gives way to less dense tropical forest and then to grasses.

Where the dry season lasts six months or more, savannas are dominant. These regions of tall grasses with scattered patches of trees occupy the Llanos of Colombia and Venezuela and large parts of southern Brazil. Along permanent streams in savannas, where moisture is abundant, thick forests flourish. Drought-prone northeastern Brazil is mostly a scrubby woodland of thorny bushes and other plants that require little water.

Woodland and grassland in southern Brazil merge southward with the scrub of the Gran Chaco and the grassy plains of the Pampas. Much of Patagonia is covered with semidesert plants, including shrubs and grasses.

On the humid eastern slopes of the Andes from Venezuela south through Bolivia, vegetation changes with increasing altitude. Tropical forests at the lower levels give way to subtropical trees, which fade out at higher elevations and are replaced by grasses. The high Andean plateaus and basins are nearly all sparsely covered grasslands. Barren conditions prevail on the arid Pacific coast from Peru southward through the Atacama Desert of northern Chile. On southern Chile's rainy slopes are dense mixed forests of beech, cedar, fir, and other middle-latitude species.

A rich variety of birds, reptiles, insects, fish, and small mammals abounds in South America, especially in tropical regions. There are, however, no mammals comparable in size to the lion, rhinoceros, or elephant. Nor are there wild horses, antelopes, or their near relatives. The larger animals are mostly carnivores of the cat family, including the jaguar, cougar, and ocelot.

Other mammals include such tropical vegetarians as the tapir, sloth, marsh deer, and capybara. The latter, which reaches a length of four feet (1.2 m), is the world's largest rodent. Howler monkeys, spider monkeys, and marmosets are among the many primates of the tropical forest. Guinea pigs and agouti, both common rodents, are widely hunted for food.

In Andean forests lives the spectacled bear, the only South American bear. Higher in the Andes are found the guanaco and vicuña, members of the camel family and close relatives of the domesticated llama and alpaca.

Nowhere in the world is there as great a variety of birds as in South America. More than 1,500 species have been identified, many of them living in the Amazon Basin and the rainy forests of western Colombia. The cock of the rock, the hoatzin, and many colorful toucans, parrots, and macaws are all forest dwellers. Largest of the continent's birds is the flightless, ostrich-like rhea. The majestic Andean condor has the largest wingspread of any South American bird. Penguins live on the Pacific coast from Peru southward. Many birds that breed in North America migrate here to escape the cold winters—among them hawks, shorebirds, warblers, and swallows.

Snakes, alligators, lizards, and amphibians are plentiful. Notable poisonous snakes are the bushmaster and fer-de-lance; nonpoisonous types include some of the world's largest snakes, such as the anaconda and boa constrictor. Swamps and marshes are home to alligators and their close relatives, caimans, as well as turtles, frogs, and more unusual species such as the Surinam toad. Such fish as piranha, catfish, and electric eels live in many of South America's rivers, which are also the native habitat of such aquarium species as the angelfish, tetra, and hatchetfish.

Economy

Agriculture and mining have long been the economic mainstays of South America. More workers gain a livelihood from farming than from any other occupation. Mining employs relatively few workers, but often contributes much to national economies through exports. Since few countries have well-developed manufacturing industries, agricultural products and minerals are usually traded overseas in order to buy machinery and other vital manufactured items. Most countries depend heavily on the export of one or two major commodities and are vulnerable to changes in world market prices. A price drop, however small, may have disastrous results.

Most South American countries are attempting to diversify their economies by expanding manufacturing and privatizing inefficient state-owned industries. In another strategy for economic development, many South American countries have entered into regional trading blocs among themselves and with more industrialized countries. The largest and most important South American trading bloc, Mercosur, is a free trade zone among Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay established in 1995. In 1994 leaders from North and South America met to begin negotiations to create a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) by 2005.

In many respects agriculture remains the chief economic activity of South America. It is declining in importance, however, as the continent's nations diversify economically and as the rural poor abandon farming to seek a better life in the cities. In the late 20 th century, about a quarter of South America's workerforce was engaged in farming.

About four-fifths of South America’s land could be utilized for agriculture, though in reality only about one-third is used, the rest serving as grazing land for animals. Most of the land in South America is divided into large properties called latifundios, owned by a small percentage of the population, and smaller properties called minifundios that provide food for a single family. Latifundios include haciendas which are large farms or country estates, plantations, owned by foreign companies, and technically advanced farms controlled by agribusinesses, which are companies that are engaged in producing, transporting, distributing, and selling farm products. Minifundios, employ traditional farming methods relying more upon human and animal labor, and though they cover less farmlands than latifundios, are greater in quantity.

Two kinds of traditional farming prevail. Subsistence farming is done on small plots by individual families and yields only enough food for a meager existence with an occasional small surplus for sale. This kind of farming is widely practiced. In contrast is the agriculture of the haciendas, estates that typically cover vast areas and produce either crops or livestock, or both. Haciendas are generally family-owned and operate in much the same manner as in the past, with little regard for efficiency. Most of them employ laborers and have tenant farmers; many of them contain much idle land. Many haciendas are held by absentee owners.

South America also has many modern commercial farms, especially in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, and Colombia. Most are medium-sized, family-operated holdings; they are often mechanized and use chemical fertilizers as well as the latest scientific methods to ensure high yields. There are also large commercial plantations, which are generally located on or near the coast and produce bananas, sugarcane, and other crops, mostly for export. Some plantations are owned by large foreign corporations.

Grains, such as corn and wheat, are widely grown the former being the general basic food in most countries. Most countries produce some wheat, though the great bulk of the crop comes from Argentina's fertile Pampas, west of Buenos Aires. Oats, barley, and rye are also grown in Argentina. Rice is important in southeastern Brazil.

Nearly half of the world's coffee comes from South America. The large fazendas, or coffee estates, of southeastern Brazil account for much of the production, with most of the remainder coming from the smaller, family-owned farms in the Colombian Andes. Other valuable crops include cotton and sugarcane. Cotton is grown mainly in parts of Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Paraguay, and Peru. Brazil is by far the leading sugarcane producer. Bananas, cacao, citrus fruit, and grapes are also commercially important. Ecuador exports the largest amount of bananas in the world.

At the subsistence level, small farmers throughout South America tend to grow the same crops. Most common are beans, corn, potatoes, and manioc, or cassava. Along with other vegetables and some fruit, they make up the basic diet in most rural areas.

The late 20th century saw farmers growing nontraditional crops, with countries like Colombia cultivating flowers for sale in North America and Europe, Chile producing kiwi fruit, citrus fruits, and grapes for export during the winter months in the Northern Hemisphere, Argentina and Chile producing wine grapes, and Argentina and Brazil exporting soybeans for animal feed.

Many farmers earn high profits by cultivating such illegal crops as coca, used to produce cocaine, the source of cocaine, has become a major crop in the northern Andes; poppies, used to make heroin; and marijuana, and hence efforts to encourage them to substitute legal crops are an utter failure. This has displaced many traditional crops in a number of areas.

Livestock raising is an important part of South American agriculture. Many areas not particularly suited for cultivation make good grazing lands, although livestock are also kept wherever farming is practiced. Several areas stand out as major commercial cattle-raising centers, notably the Pampas of Argentina and Uruguay, southern and southeastern Brazil, and the Llanos of Colombia and Venezuela. Brazil has the largest numbers of cattle, but Argentina has generally better grazing lands and better breeds. Both countries export large amounts of beef. Sheep thrive where cattle would do poorly, as in the drier parts of the Pampas and in Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. In the Andes, sheep are relied on for both wool and food. Hogs and goats are kept on many farms, most commonly in Brazil.

The trend toward industrial development in virtually every country of South America is of major economic importance. Beginning in the 1930's and especially after World War II, many countries began to increase their output of manufactured goods to lessen dependence on trade with the United States and western Europe. Industrialization in several nations, particularly Brazil and Argentina, has been rapid. Many items, ranging from basic iron and steel to small consumer goods, are now made locally rather than imported.

Today, South America manufactures a great variety of goods, governments promote the manufacture of goods for export. Brazil, South America's most industrialized nation, has its heaviest concentration of manufacturing plants in the triangular region bounded by São Paulo, Belo Horizonte, and Rio de Janeiro. The well-developed iron and steel industry is the basis for the nation's other heavy manufacturing, including that of motor vehicles, chemicals, machinery, and electrical equipment. Large food processing and textile industries supply much of Brazil's food and clothing. Appliances and other consumer items are often made entirely of Brazilian-produced materials, rather than with imported components.

Argentina's industries are also extensive, but tend to concentrate more on the processing of agricultural materials than on heavy manufacturing. Food processing, particularly meat packing and grain milling, has long been the leading industry; steelmaking and oil refining are growing gradually.

Elsewhere on the continent, manufacturing is less well developed and is oriented toward food, textiles, and mineral processing. The larger countries of the west and north have modest iron and steel industries, and usually at least one petroleum refinery. Colombia and oil-rich Venezuela each have several oil refineries, and additional crude oil is shipped abroad for refining. Except for food and textiles, light industries in these nations are often unable to produce enough locally needed goods. Despite the general growth of manufacturing on the continent, many workers in manufacturing are still engaged in the making of simple handicraft items.

Several countries have formed export-processing zones where foreign multinational firms have set up factories employing numerous South Americans, and in the process, benefiting from complimentary excise policies and lower labor costs.

Endowed with considerable mineral wealth, South America was yielding gold and silver to the Incas long before European colonists arrived. Mining became the basis of the colonial economy, and mineral exports continue to account for much of the gross national product in several countries. In general, the continent is well supplied with metallic ores, but is short of fuels, especially coal. While reserves and production of certain minerals are very high, discovery and development of new deposits are often hindered by difficult terrain, great distances, and lack of investment capital. Foreign companies have established many of South America's largest, most modern mines and have operated them primarily for export.

The continent's richest mining regions have long been in the Andes. Here, metals are particularly important. Copper and tin, coming mainly from Chile and Bolivia respectively, are of long-standing significance. Other metals produced include iron, lead, zinc, silver, antimony, and molybdenum.

The Guiana and Brazilian highlands are increasingly becoming centers of mining. A wide range of metals and nonmetals are mined in the Brazilian Highlands as Brazil continues its rapid industrialization. Brazil, Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela are among world leaders in mining bauxite, used to make aluminum. Chile is a major source of copper, apart from Peru, which also exports zinc.

The continent's lowland regions yield relatively few minerals other than fuels. Petroleum is produced in substantial amounts near the base of the Andes, especially in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Petroleum is also produced elsewhere in the lowlands and at offshore sites. Argentina and Bolivia also export large quantities of natural gas, which is in high demand around the world. Gold and diamonds are obtained from alluvial deposits along some lowland rivers, especially in the Amazon Basin, and Colombia is a leading emerald producer. Mining creates wealth only for a small portion of the population and for large corporations, as it creates a few jobs. Mining also causes significant environmental damage, such as the pollution of water from mercury and other toxins used to process mineral ores

Forestry and fishing are two important industries of South America. Commercial fisheries are a source of food in many countries, in some cases adding significantly to the national economy. The cold waters of Peru and Chile are rich in fish, especially anchovies. The freshwater catch and the ocean fish are largely used as food by many South Americans. The anchovetta, a fish used in making oil and animal feed, is an important commercial variety that abounds in these countries. Since the mid 20th century, Peru has developed its fishing industry into one of the world's largest. The cool Peru Current (also called the Humboldt Current), flowing along the west coast of South America is rich in plankton and other organism that are used to make fishmeal, a livestock food that is a major export. Chile and northeastern Brazil have sizable fishing fleets that serve local markets. Excessive fishing over the ages has, however, affected the industry, which has seen a decline since the late 20 th century due to reduced fish stocks.

Relatively little of South America's vast forest land is cut commercially, except for wood used as fuel. The tropical forests are rich in valuable woods. Logging, however, is difficult because individual species do not grow in solid stands, but are widely scattered among many other types of trees. Also, transportation to river or ocean ports is usually difficult or virtually impossible. Mahogany, balsa, greenwood and rosewood are among the more common tropical woods cut. In the Gran Chaco, the quebracho tree is valuable as a source of tannin, used in making leather. The hard quebracho wood is much used in South America for railroad ties and fence-posts.

Brazil is South America ’s chief producer of forestry products. Southern parts of south America produce softwood pine trees. South American forests also yield coconuts, dates, edible nuts, oils, and ingredients used to make medicines and other pharmaceutical products, apart from wood. The sap of rubber trees, called latex, is found in the Amazon rain forest, and is used to make rubber tires.

During the debt crisis of the late 20th century, many countries leased land to foreign logging firms that cut down vast areas of trees, causing many environmental problems such as soil erosion, water pollution, and the extinction of some species of animals, plants, and microbes. Since then, many South American countries have launched afforestation and reforestation programs to save trees.

Service industries employ more than half of South America ’s work force, and include the sectors of banking, commercial sales, government services, health care, and tourism. Service jobs that do not need much skill and also pays quite low wages are cleaning and food preparation. Data processing, legal services, and telecommunications are service jobs that are gaining importance, and require a high standard of education.

South American cities harbor many underemployed people lacking full-time jobs, who work in the informal economy that provides low-cost services, and exists without government control and tax structures. South American professional people, earning less than their North American and European counterparts are benefited by the informal economy, which also embraces such illegal activities as prostitution and the sale of illegal drugs.

Two great natural barriers—the Andes Mountains and the Amazon Basin—are major obstacles to the development of good transportation in South America. In most places, roads and railways are concentrated near the coast. Few railways reach far inland; only a very few cross the Andes. Until the 1970's no road spanned the broad Amazon lowlands. Only southeastern Brazil and the Pampas of Argentina have adequate rail networks.

Roads are more extensive than railways and reach much farther inland. Road building receives much more attention and money than do railways, which are deteriorating in some countries. Fairly good roads link major cities within most countries, but international routes are limited.

Water transportation is the oldest and still one of the most widely used means of moving goods and passengers. Several large river systems—the Amazon, Orinoco, Magdalena, and La Plata-Paraná in particular—are especially important as commercial shipping routes. Coastal shipping in Brazil and Chile helps compensate for the shortage of land routes in parts of these countries. Chile uses ferries to connect its central region to the far south, where the coastline is quite irregular and there are hardly any paved roads

Air travel is of major importance. In remote areas, such as the Amazon Basin, it is often the only means of transportation. Even in densely settled regions, air service may be heavily used, as are the commuter—type air shuttles between São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro.

Most South Americans who cannot afford to fly, and do not own automobiles, rely on buses for cheap transportation. There are a few subway systems operating in some of the bigger cities. The increasing number of automobiles leads to traffic congestion, and air pollution is a major problem arising from transportation in the large cities.

Increasing commercial operations among the South American nations makes it a necessity to improve transportation. Many countries have begun to combine their transportation systems and also to build roads across borders as well as to the coast. Chile is also in the process of constructing a megaport on its northern coast at Mejillones, which is to serve as a point of access to the Pacific Ocean for Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Chile.

Communication.

Books, magazines, and newspapers are important means of communication in South America, as over 90 percent of adults in the major countries are literate.

Radio and television have grown in significance in recent times, especially in urban areas, In 2005, Venezuela launched, along with Argentina, Cuba, and Uruguay a TV network called Telesur that transmits news. Soccer matches and soap operas called telenovelas are popularly enjoyed in South America .

Telephone service extends over most of South America, except in the extremely inaccessible communities. A growing number of people are also resorting to cellular phones for their daily business. Since the mid-20th century, the use of the Internet has also seen a great deal of advancement.

The countries of South America are all members of the World Trade Organization (WTO), which regulates international trade and attempts in reducing trade barriers between countries. In 1991, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay formed a trade association called Mercosur, which endeavors to boost trade among members and encourages better commercial relations with the European Union. The Andean Community, another trade association founded by Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela (which withdrew in 2006), is not too successful, its drawback being that member nations produce quite a large amount of similar goods.

South America’s major trading partners have traditionally been North America and Europe, and are now gradually extending towards the Middle Eastern nations. Trade with such Pacific nations as Australia, China, Japan, and South Korea has also developed since the late 20th century. Internal trade, amongst countries in South America is also frequent.

Brazil accounts for about 40 per cent of South America's imports and exports by value. Venezuela, Chile, Argentina, and Colombia account for most of the rest. Leading products exported from South America include food and beverages, tobacco, fuels, machinery, and transportation equipment. South America imports chemicals, foodstuffs, fuels, machinery, and transportation equipment

The People

More than half of South America's population is of mixed ancestry; the mestizos are a mixture of American Indian and Caucasian, the mulattos are a mixture of black and Caucasian, and the zambos are a mixture of black and Indian. The mestizos, considered by some authorities to be more a cultural group than a racial group, are the most numerous.

South America's population was estimated at about 315 million in 1995; about half lived in Brazil. Most of the people are concentrated in clusters near the edges of the continent, especially along the eastern coast and in the mountain valleys of the west. Only in a few places, such as the Paraná River valley of Argentina, have densely settled areas extended any great distance into the interior. Although South America's population is relatively small—some 5.6 per cent of the world's total—it is growing rapidly.

The official languages of all South American countries are European. Spanish is the most widely used; the others are Portuguese in Brazil, and English, Dutch, and French in the northeast. Many Indian languages are spoken; Quechua is used by many Andean Indians, and Guaraní is widely used in Paraguay. Nearly all of the people are Roman Catholic.

Educational opportunities in South America vary widely, as do literacy rates. In Bolivia, for example, more than 20 per cent of the population is illiterate; in Argentina, less than 5 per cent. In most countries elementary education is free and, where practical, compulsory. Secondary education is limited almost entirely to the cities. All countries have government-supported universities, but enrollment rates vary. In Argentina, for example, there are more than 800,000 university students. In Brazil, a nation with almost five times as many people, there are only about 500,000 university students.

In the large urban areas a European style of life prevails. In many rural areas Indian customs are followed, although all people of the continent—except for a few remote Indian tribes—have been affected by European culture. Many people belonging to traditional cultures live in the forests of the Amazon and Orinoco river basins. Many of these are nomadic hunters and food gatherers, while others live in agricultural communities.

The Indians of the Andes mountains are primarily farmers and herders. They also produce woven textiles, gold, silver, and copper ornaments, and carved wood objects, often employing techniques in use before the Spanish conquest.

Government

All of the 13 independent nations of South America have written constitutions, and all are republics. Twelve of them have the presidential system of government, like that of the United States. Only Trinidad and Tobago has the parliamentary form of government, with a prime minister as head of government.

Three countries—Argentina, Brazil, and Venezuela—have federal systems. The others have centralized systems, being divided into departments or provinces for administrative purposes.

French Guiana is an overseas department of France; the Netherlands Antilles are an autonomous part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands; and the Falkland Islands are a territory of Great Britain.

Most South American countries' governments were overthrown by the military. Under these repressive regimes, citizens enjoyed few if any civil liberties. Beginning in the mid-1980's democratic civilian governments had returned to power in a few countries. By the mid-1990's all were governed by elected rulers.

Most South American countries have universal adult suffrage, and literacy requirements for voting have generally been eliminated. Poverty, geographic remoteness, and poor education keep people from voting in predominantly rural countries, but in others democratization has energized grassroots political activity.