Geography of California

Introduction to Geography of California

California, a state in the western United States. It is bordered by Oregon, Nevada, Arizona, and Mexico and stretches along the Pacific Ocean for roughly 800 miles (1,300 km). Occupying 158,706 square miles (411,047 km2), California is the third largest state in the nation, after Alaska and Texas.

California is outstanding in its diversity. Its landscapes include high, snow-covered mountains, barren deserts, fertile valleys, and coastal areas of breathtaking beauty. The state's economy is equally varied. California outranks all other states in total employment and contribution to the nation's economy. The population, too, is diverse. Since the Gold Rush of 1849, California has drawn people from all other parts of the country. To many, California has been the land of the future, with room and opportunities for all. Others came for the mild, sunny climate. The attraction was such that by the mid-1960's California had become the most populous state in the nation.

Physical Geography

In very general terms, most of California consists of two parallel mountain systems—the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Ranges—enclosing a great lowland, the Central Valley. The remainder of the state is largely desert and semidesert, with scattered, low mountain ranges.

The Sierra Nevada extends along or near the California-Nevada border for about 400 miles (640 km). It averages 40 to 80 miles (65 to 130 km) in width and is marked by high peaks and deep canyons. In the highest section, called the High Sierras, are 11 peaks that rise more than 14,000 feet (4,270 m) above sea level. Mount Whitney, at 14,494 feet (4,418 m), is the highest peak in the United States outside Alaska. Yosemite, Sequoia, and Kings Canyon national parks and several national forests and national monuments are in the Sierra Nevada.

The Coast Ranges, up to 50 miles (80 km) wide, include a number of mountain ranges separated by lovely valleys. Altitudes vary from about 2,000 to 9,000 feet (610 to 2,740 m). The mountains are continuous except for a wide gap made by San Francisco Bay, where the rivers of the Central Valley empty into the sea.

In northern California are the moderately rugged Klamath Mountains and the Cascade Range. Except for several volcanic peaks, mountains here crest roughly between 6,500 and 8,500 feet (1,980 arid 2,590 m). Mount Shasta, a snowcapped dormant volcano in the Cascades, rises to more than 14,000 feet (4,270 m), towering majestically over the entire region. Lassen Peak, at the southern end of the Cascade Range, erupted several times early in the 1900's and forms the core of Lassen Volcanic National Park.

The Central Valley is a wide, relatively flat expanse extending some 450 miles (720 km) through the central part of the state. The northern part is often called the Sacramento Valley, the southern part the San Joaquin Valley. Into this great valley flow most of the rivers that begin in the Sierra Nevada and Coast Ranges.

The southern end of the Central Valley is closed off by the Tehachapi Mountains, which stretch between the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Ranges. To the south, the San Gabriel, Santa Ana, and San Bernardino mountains form a barrier between the Pacific shore and the Mojave Desert. The Mojave is a largely barren expanse with numerous dry salt lakes, low mountains, and dry streambeds. Death Valley, site of the lowest point in the Western Hemisphere (282 feet [86 m] below sea level), curves northward from the desert between desolate ranges near the Nevada border. The Sonoran Desert occupies much of the area near the Mexican border.

The land east of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range consists of elevated plateaus and basins, forming part of the Great Basin of the western United States. Scattered across this sparsely populated part of the state are low mountain ranges and isolated peaks.

California is subject to frequent earthquakes, particularly in the coastal regions. They are caused primarily by shifting of the earth's crust along fractures known as faults. The San Andreas Fault extends from the Pacific Ocean off Cape Mendocino southeastward through the San Francisco and Los Angeles areas into northern Mexico. Numerous lesser faults occur elsewhere in the state. A few of the quakes have been strong, but most have been of only slight intensity. In 1906 a quake and a fire that followed devastated San Francisco.

The principal rivers within California are the Sacramento and the San Joaquin, which drain the Central Valley and empty into the sea by way of San Francisco Bay. Both rivers are fed by sizable tributaries flowing from adjacent mountains, particularly the Sierra Nevada. Beyond the Central Valley the chief rivers are the Colorado, in the southeast, and the Klamath, in the northwest. Many of the state's smaller rivers are dry during part of the year.

Dozens of lakes, both natural and man-made, are scattered across California. One of the largest, Lake Tahoe, lies in a beautiful setting high in the Sierra Nevada on the border with Nevada. The Salton Sea is a broad, shallow, below-sea-level lake formed when the Colorado River overflowed its banks in the early 1900's. Goose, Honey, Mono, and Clear lakes are also sizable bodies of water.

Much of California is dry, and water resources are distributed unevenly. The wettest area is the north, the driest the south. Extensive canal and aqueduct systems have been constructed to move water southward to meet constantly increasing urban and agricultural use. Among the large carriers are the California Aqueduct, the Los Angeles Aqueduct, and the Colorado River Aqueduct.

California is perhaps more widely known for its climate than for anything else in its natural environment. The climate is often described as being sunny, mild, and dry. Although that is generally true for much of the state, especially the south, there is a considerable range of climatic conditions. Differences are caused mainly by differences in latitude (California spans more than 10 degrees of latitude), by the varying elevation and topography within the state, and by distance from the sea.

Coastal California differs greatly from south to north. The southern one-third is warm and dry; the northern one-third is cool and moist; the central section is transitional. Average January and July temperatures, for example, vary from 55° and 70° F. (13° and 21° C.) at San Diego in the south to 47° and 56° F. (8° and 13° C.) at Eureka in the north. Average annual precipitation at the two cities is 10 and 40 inches (250 and 1,000 mm) respectively. Virtually all the precipitation comes during the rainy season from October through April. The rest of the year is dry. Much fog and mist occurs along the northern half of the coast.

The Central Valley has hotter summers and cooler winters than does most of the coast. It also has greater daily and seasonal temperature ranges. Sacramento, for example, has an average temperature of 45° F. (7° C.) in January and 75° F. (24° C.) in July. Precipitation in the Central Valley decreases from more than 20 inches (500 mm) in the north to roughly 5 inches (125 mm) in the far south. The wet and dry seasons are the same as along the coast.

The climate of the high mountains increases in severity as elevation increases. Many parts of the Sierra Nevada are cold and are blanketed by extremely deep snows. Mountain slopes facing the moisture-bearing winds from the Pacific receive the largest amounts of precipitation.

The plateaus and basins on the drier, leeward sides of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range, especially those in the northeast, lie at high elevations and have a continental climate similar to that of most western states. Winters are long and cold; summers are warm to hot.

The low-lying desert area of southeastern California is extremely hot in summer and warm in winter. Temperatures of more than 100° F. (38° C.) frequently occur; the highest temperature ever recorded in North America, 134° F. (57° C.), occurred in this area, in Death Valley, in 1913. Precipitation is scant. Much of the area receives less than 3 inches (80 mm) annually.

The vegetation of California is as varied as the state's climate and land forms. Forests, many of which are under federal administration, cover about two-fifths of the land. The major forest regions are the Sierra Nevada and the northern Coast Ranges. In the Sierras, pine and fir are common; giant sequoia is also found there, mainly in national parks. In the Coast Ranges, redwood, pine, and fir predominate.

The Central Valley, now extensively farmed with the aid of irrigation, was originally a grassland. On the lower slopes of the mountains enclosing the valley grows a mixture of pine, oak, and many other trees, as well as shrubs, grasses, and a profusion of wildflowers. Large areas, especially in southern California, are covered with chaparral (thickets of woody shrubs). In the arid southeast and extreme south is found an assortment of cacti and other desert plants. Unique to the Mojave Desert is the Joshua tree, a tall species of yucca now found mostly in Joshua Tree National Monument.

Economy

In nearly all respects California is the most productive of the 50 states. Were it an independent nation, it would rank among the leading countries of the world in value of total output. Manufacturing plants make almost everything from tiny electronic items to autos and jet aircraft. From irrigated valleys comes a large share of the fruits and vegetables consumed in the United States. Rich fields yield great quantities of petroleum and natural gas. In finance and insurance, California is exceeded by few states; in retail and wholesale trade it is the national leader.

Nearly 85 per cent of California's nonagricultural workers are employed in service industries, wholesale and retail trade, manufacturing, and government.

California ranks as the country's leading manufacturing state, a position it reached in the early 1970's. Before World War II California's leading manufacturing industries consisted largely of those processing farm products, timber, and seafood. The war stimulated growth of more technologically advanced industries, such as the building of electronic equipment, aircraft, and motor vehicles. These and other manufacturing activities boomed after the war. Since the end of the Cold War in 1991, cuts in the defense spending have caused a decline in some of California's high technology industries, especially the aerospace industry.

Most manufacturing is done in and around Los Angeles, the San Francisco Bay Area, and San Diego. At Fontana, near Los Angeles, is one of the largest iron and steel mills in the western United States. This plant and smaller ones in the Bay Area make much of the steel used in the state. Aerospace research, development, and manufacture is a California specialty. Factories around Los Angeles and San Diego make missiles, military and commercial aircraft, and highly complicated equipment for crewed and un-crewed spaceflights.

Electronics manufacturing is a rapidly expanding industry. It has close ties to the aerospace industry and also to the state's large universities, which have extensive research facilities and highly skilled staffs. The chief center of electronics manufacturing is the so-called Silicon Valley, extending roughly between San Jose and Palo Alto. The valley takes its name from the mass production of silicon chips, the heart of the modern electronic computer.

Near Los Angeles and in the San Francisco Bay Area are large motor-vehicle assembly plants. Oil refineries, chemical plants, and factories making pipe, valves, and similar equipment are located near oil fields south of Los Angeles and in the Central Valley.

Printing and publishing and the making of scientific instruments, clothing, wood products, paper products, and machinery and other fabricated metal products are also major activities.

Throughout California's rich farmland are many processing and canning plants. Here fruits, vegetables, sugar, rice, and other foods are prepared for market. Wine is a valuable product of vineyards in the Central Valley and in numerous valleys along the coast, especially near San Francisco. California also has many factories that supply the food industry with cans, bottles, and many types of paper and plastic packaging materials.

The Los Angeles area, especially Hollywood, Culver City, and Burbank, is the nation's main center for producing motion pictures and television programs.

By value of production, California is the leading agricultural state. Its abundant and varied crops include almost everything grown elsewhere in the United States. Many California farms are quite small, consisting of less than 50 acres (20 hectares), while others have hundreds of acres. Many of the largest farms, each covering thousands of acres, are owned and operated by corporations.

The key to California's agriculture is irrigation. Nearly 90 per cent of the state's cropland is irrigated. Most of the irrigated land is in the Central Valley. The Sierra Nevada, with abundant rain and snow, feeds the San Joaquin River and other streams that water the thirsty lands of the southern part of the Central Valley. Water from the Sacramento River in the north irrigates part of the Sacramento Valley and is also sent southward through a system of pumps, pipelines, and canals. In southern California, irrigation water is brought in by canal from the distant Colorado River to the Imperial Valley and neighboring areas. Wells are another major source of irrigation water.

Fruits are grown in many parts of California. Hardy fruits, including apples, pears, plums, apricots, cherries, and peaches, grow in the Central Valley and in the valleys of the coastal mountains. Most widely grown are peaches, of which California is the country's leading producer. In grape production as well, California is far ahead of the other states. By value, grapes are California's chief crop.

Near Los Angeles and in the southern part of the Central Valley, citrus orchards cover large areas. California produces about 80 per cent of all the lemons grown in the United States and ranks high in the production of oranges, grapefruit, and tangerines. Other semitropical fruits of southern California include figs, olives, dates, and avocados. Great quantities of nuts, particularly almonds and English walnuts, are grown in the Central Valley.

Many different kinds of winter and summer vegetables thrive in California. By tonnage the state normally accounts for more than half of the commercial vegetables grown in the United States; by value the state accounts for nearly half of the United States total. Among the chief vegetables are broccoli, carrots, cauliflower, celery, lettuce, onions, and tomatoes. The Central Valley, the Imperial Valley, and the Salinas Valley are major centers of production.

California was the first state to grow sugar beets successfully, and it remains a leading producer. Cotton is grown mainly in the San Joaquin Valley; normally, production is second only to that of Texas.

Wheat and barley are important California crops. Both are produced largely by dry-land methods, although some irrigation is practiced. Rice, grown entirely by irrigation, comes largely from the Sacramento Valley.

About 25 per cent of all farm income is derived from the sale of livestock and livestock products. Milk and beef cattle account for nearly all of this income.

Greenhouse and nursery products, including flowers, seeds, and plants, are also major sources of agricultural income.

Many minerals are mined in California, but petroleum accounts for the largest share of the production by value. In the early 1990's California ranked third among the petroleum-producing states of the nation. Large amounts of natural gas are also extracted. Both petroleum and natural gas are produced in southern California at onshore and offshore sites and in the southern part of the Central Valley.

In value of nonfuel mineral production, California normally ranks first or second among the states. Of greatest value are gold, boron minerals, sand and gravel, and crushed stone. California is the only state to produce tungsten and is usually the nation's leading source of asbestos, boron, diatomite, rare earths, and sand and gravel.

Lumbering is a widespread industry, especially in the mountains of the northwest and in the Sierra Nevada. In wood and lumber production only Oregon surpasses California. Douglas fir and redwood are the chief commercial species in northwestern California, Ponderosa pine in the Sierra Nevada. About 65 per cent of the forests are under the control of the federal government.

California usually is among the top 10 fishing states in the United States. The principal species taken are mackerel, sardine, sole, squid, and rockfish. Los Angeles, Crescent City, and San Francisco are the leading fishing ports.

Although California's long coast has only a few good harbors, those few are among the finest on the Pacific Ocean. San Francisco Bay is one of the largest and most important anchorages in the world. Ships from ports around the Pacific and other areas of the world dock at Oakland and San Francisco and at other ports on the bay. At Los Angeles and Long Beach, forming a giant complex, are two of the nation's busiest and most rapidly growing ports. Both use largely artificial harbors.

San Diego, with a deep, protected harbor, has long been the home port of many United States naval vessels, but is not a major shipping port. Sacramento, which is linked to San Francisco Bay by a deep water channel, is a major inland port serving the Central Valley.

California was one of the first states to begin building a network of freeways and expressways. Now a vast system of these roads and Interstate highways carries traffic through, around, and between the major cities and towns. California has a number of large bridges, probably the best known of which are the Golden Gate Bridge, across the mouth of San Francisco Bay, and the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge, linking San Francisco with Oakland.

Most of California's railways extend in a north-south direction either through the Central Valley or along the coast. A few main lines run eastward over the Sierra Nevada and the deserts, linking the state with the rest of the country. Airlines serve the larger cities, providing a large choice of regional, national, and international flights. International airports in the larger metropolitan areas, particularly Los Angeles and San Francisco, are major terminals for flights to and from Asia and many other parts of the world.

The People

Although California's population density is some 217.2 persons per square mile (83.9 per km2)—almost three times that of the nation as a whole—there are great expanses with few people, and relatively small areas where nearly all the people are concentrated. Millions live in the huge urbanized areas centering on Los Angeles and San Francisco; a third major population center is the San Diego area.

Of the total population in 2000, 59.5 were white; 6.7 per cent were black; 10.9 per cent were Asian, mainly Chinese and Filipino. People of Hispanic origin, the vast majority from Mexico, made up 32.4 per cent of the population.

Education

California's superintendent of public instruction and director of education is elected for a four-year term. The seven-member state board of education is appointed by the governor. The board determines educational policy for the public elementary and secondary schools and for public junior colleges. School attendance is compulsory for children from the age of 6 to 16.

The first schools in California were Indian mission schools, established from San Diego to Sonoma by Spanish Franciscans in the 1770's. The first compulsory school attendance law was enacted in 1874. One of the first junior high schools in the nation was established at Berkeley in 1909. The California public school system has more students than that of any other state. The state also leads the nation in the number of public junior colleges. The system's headquarters are in Long Beach.

The California state college and university system consists of a number of state colleges and state universities (not including the University of California) in communities throughout the state.

The University of California, one of the nation's largest institutions of higher learning, was opened at Berkeley in 1868. The branch campus at Los Angeles is known popularly as UCLA. Other branches are in Davis, Irvine, Riverside, San Diego, San Francisco, Santa Barbara, and Santa Cruz. The university's Hastings College of Law is at San Francisco. The Scripps Institution of Oceanography at La Jolla is part of the San Diego branch.

The University of California is one of the major recipients of federal funds given to educational institutions for research. The most outstanding research facility it operates is the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico, where the first atomic bomb and hydrogen bomb were developed.

The Naval Postgraduate School, for naval officers, is at Monterey.

Among the best known of the state's privately supported schools are California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, and Stanford University, near Palo Alto.

Government

California is governed under its second constitution, adopted in 1879.

The state legislature consists of a senate of 40 members elected for four years, and an assembly of 80 members elected for two years. Officials in the executive branch are elected for four-year terms. They include the governor, lieutenant governor, secretary of state, controller, treasurer, attorney general, insurance commissioner, and superintendent of public instruction.

Judicial power is vested in a supreme court of seven justices, courts of appeal, superior courts, and various minor courts. Supreme court justices and appellate court judges are appointed to 12-year terms by the governor and may seek retention by the voters at the end of their terms. All other judges are elected to 6-year terms.

Voters have direct lawmaking power through the use of the initiative and the referendum.

The state is divided into 58 counties, each with a five-member board of supervisors, with the exception of the consolidated city-county of San Francisco, which has 11. California is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 53 representatives.